THEORIES OF COMMNICATION

MASS COMMUNICATION THEORIES

The word "mass" means multiple, large size, aggregate, collective, group, crowd,mob, congregation, etc. Communication is sending out of information, sharing with, imparting to, or giving information to.Thus, mass communication means sharing information or a message with a large number of people simultaneously at one place or at several places. The act of communication begins with birth. It continues all through one's life. It is a social process. Communication can be delivered in several ways: verbal (with the help of words), non-verbal, graphic, audio-visual, even by signs and symbols. The nature, process, role, effects, use, perception of the messages so communicated are interpreted through numerous theories, and communication research models. These theories have been innovated, experimented, explained, interpreted and reinterpreted over a period of time. Many communication.

researchers and specialists have termed these theories differently taking into account the circumstances, environments and their perception of the effects. In addition to communication specialists, several scholars in political science, sociology, psychology public administration and even anthropology have contributed several theories to underline and spotlight the effects of mass communication in different situations. These researchers have endeavored to prove that signs, symbols, meanings, language and visual representations lead to divergent theories of which communication is the epicenter. But as, Denis McQuail opines, four types of perspective have led to propounding different theories of mass communication. First, the media culturalist perspective emphasizing the media content and influence of the perception of media messages. Second, the media materialist perspective who stresses political-economic and technological aspects of the media.Third, the social-culturalist perspective that influences social factors on media production and reception and functions of the media in social life. Finally, the social materialist prospective views media as a reflection of economic and materialist conditions of the society. It is worth stating here that a mass communication theory does not mean putting media effects in the straightjacket of a law. "But a set of ideas which can help make sense of a phenomenon, guide action or predict a consequence." On these premises, McQuail categorizes four kinds of theories relevant to mass communication; social scientific, normative, operational and everyday theory. However, it has been widely accepted that most of these theories are based on studies of signs, symbols and meanings and their relations to the objects and concept to which they belong. Interpretation, elaboration and criticism of such interpretations have further led to enunciation and propounding of more theories and models.

TWO STEP AND MULTI STEP THEORY:

Since communication is generally a well-planned process, it follows various steps before it can be effective. These processes are therefore characterized as on-step' two-step or multi-step. Mass communication researchers have found that social interaction plays significant role in modeling the behavior of the people in particular situations and on receipt of a given message. In case of one-step flow of message, the opinion leaders' role is not so important. For, even they do not have a first-hand experience or exposure. Then, the researchers have found that after the opinion leaders impart information, the message flows smoothly after that, i.e., through the second stage. So, the message flows through two, and later through many stages or steps via mass media. These communication processes are, therefore, termed as one-step, two-step or multisteps. Also media researchers have found that though individuals are influenced by mass media, but it is the face-to-face communication that makes a lot of difference. The multi-step process means, as stated earlier, inter-personal and later through mass media-- the sequential flow of message is equally effective. In case of multi step messages, various media and networks go a long way in affecting the individuals. Besides, other variables which contribute in these steps generally include: the source, quality, exposure or availability of mass media, extent of audience exposure to communicating agencies, nature and content of the message and finally the importance of the message to the receivers or audiences. The two-step theory proves quite significant in helping the message to be effectively received and followed. The multi-step theory also embraces all other aspects of the social systems in the context of mass communication. The communicators and the receivers fully interact among themselves. The receivers include: the primary group, larger social groups and the society as a whole.

PLAY THEORY:

Media impacts have been interpreted in a variety of theories and models. Generally, media are believed to be exercising corrupting or dangerous effects on masses. Several communication scholars have highlighted media's harmful interferences on the audiences. Yet another view is that media provide audiences only with 'play experience'. A communication researcher, William Stephenson, has opined that media are there to provide pleasure. Newspapers are not read for news or information, but for pleasure and entertainment. Stephenson thus concludes that entertainment is the primary function of mass media. He brands media as 'buffer against conditions which would otherwise be anxiety producing". He interprets the impact in these terms because he feels that mass media protect people from worries by deliberately focusing on the higher aspects of life. This, he feels, lightens the burdens of the audiences. He believes social responsibilities and several other obligations of people diminish pleasure of life for them. The function of the mass media should be to help reduce pressures on the people and provide such communication as enhances their pleasures. This theory generally applies to the field of broadcast media.

USES AND GRATIFICATION THEORY:

As opposed to the play theory, uses and gratification theory propounds that "media serve a variety of needs stemming from the personal social situation of the individual." Researchers have "sought to interpret the motives for content, choice and the satisfactions looked for and derived from media is terms of everyday social circumstances and needs -- for instance, the needs of household wives for advice and status reassurance or those of newspaper readers for their daily ration of security." Generally, audiences use mass media in two ways: compensatory and supplementary. While compensatory use refers using media for education deficiency, need of social success or raising one's status. Media are also yoked for extending existing knowledge parameters and tackling social conundrums. Researchers like Denis McQuail, Blumler, Berelson and others have explained how the mass media are used for such purposes. They have placed human needs in several categories. Mass Media profusely assist in serving to gratify the needs of the audiences. As McQuail states, the following are the major motives for and satisfaction from the media:

o Getting information and advice,

o Reducing personal insecurity,

o Learning about society and the world,

o Finding support for one's own values,

o Gaining insight into one's own life,

o Experiencing empathy with problems of others,

o Having a basis for social contact,

o Saving a substitute for social contact,

o Feeling connected with others,

o Escaping from problems and worries,

o Gaining entry into an imaginary world,

o Filling times,

o Experiencing social release, and

o Acquiring a structure for daily routine.

These motives can be conveniently subdivided into four categories of satisfaction, uses and gratification:

o Diversion,

o Personal relationships,

o Personal identity, and

o Surveillance.

All these are based on audiences' preferences to seek gratification for relief in times of worry, tension, conflict, reinforcement to meet tough situation in social and personal life. We have thus seen that nature of mass communicating; processes and impacts have been interpreted, expounded and debunked in many ways. This process goes on. It is in this way that theories and models change and are recast from time to time. The purpose is not only to achieve academic excellence, but also to make a particular discipline more realistic. Theories often reflect human, social, national and international realities.

THEORY OF SELECTIVY (SELECTIVE EXPOSURE, SELECTIVE PERCEPTION, AND

SELECTIVE RECEPTION):

This theory relates to how the audiences use the mass media and media messages. Selective perception means that the messages that are regarded favorably is more likely to be recalled by a reader, viewer or listener than the items that are regarded unfavorably. Further, if possible, the viewer will, shape his or her own interpretation of a news event to be congruent with viewers or readers existing attitude. Two areas similar to selective perception are: selective exposure and selective retention. Some persons habitually watch Doordarshan news rather than Star News or Zee News, or read Outlook and not India Today. Some persons consistently avoid materials they know to be distasteful, or that would create dissonance. Researchers find that selective retention plays a role in the effectiveness of efforts to change attitudes through informational campaigns. People remember what they want to remember. The question is: who needs to receive the message from whom? There is a thin line of difference between selective perception and selective retention. Selective retention, according to Joseph Klapper, occurs when a person who has been exposed to a communication of a few minutes before, presents a distorted or incomplete report of its contents, it is difficult to determine whether the content of (media exposure) was selectively perceived in the first place, whether it was correctly perceived but not retained, or whether the two processes complemented one another. The difficultly of making such distinctions is obviously far greater, if the period between exposure and report is a matter of days or weeks. Selective retention of pictorial material has greater possibilities. Therefore, as Joseph Klapper points out, selective exposure, selective perception and selective retention do not occur among all people in all communication situations. One or more of these processes occur among a stipulated percentage of audiences. Researcher has found that about one-third of a group does not practice selective exposure, one-fifth are exposed to more to communication opposing their interests. But, it has been proved that selective processes do occur most frequently.

AGENDA SETTING THEORY

Maxwell McCombs and Donald L. Shaw

Media influence affects the order of presentation in news reports about news events, issues in the public mind. More importance to a news-more importance attributed by audience. Media Priorities It says what people should think about and how people should think about.

These are the levels of agenda setting theory:

First Level:

Mostly studied by researchers, media uses objects or issues to influence the people what people should think about.

Second level:

Media focuses on the characters of issues how people should think about.

Agenda setting theory used in political ad, campaigns, business news, PR (public relation) etc.

The main concept associated with the agenda setting theory is gate keeping. Gate keeping controls over the selection of content discussed in the media; Public cares mostly about the product of a media gate keeping. It is especially editors media itself is a gatekeeper. News media decides ‘what’ events to admit through media ‘gates’ on ground of ‘newsworthiness’.

For e.g.: News Comes from various sources, editors choose what should appear and what should not that’s why they are called as gatekeepers.

Priming

Activity of the media in proposing the values and standards by which objects of the media attention can be judged. Media’s content will provide a lot of time and space to certain issues, making it more vivid.

To say in simple words, Media is giving utmost importance to a news so that it gives people the impression that is the most important information. This is done everyday the particular news is carried as a heading or covered everyday for months.

Headlines, Special news features, discussions, expert opinions are used.

Media primes a news by repeating the news and giving it more importance E.g. Nuclear deal.

Framing

Framing is a process of selective control

Two Meanings

1. Way in which news content is typically shaped and contextualized within same frame of reference.
2. Audience adopts the frames of reference and to see the world in a similar way. It is how people attach importance to a news and perceive it context within which an issue is viewed.

Framing talks about how people attach importance to certain news for e.g. in case of attack, defeat, win and loss, how the media frames the news such that people perceive it in a different way.

We can take India and Pakistan war; same happening is framed in different ways in both the countries. So depending on which media you view your perception will differ.

Criticisms of Agenda setting theory is

• Media users not ideal, people may not pay attention to details.

• Effect is weakened for people who have made up their mind.

• Media can’t create problems. They can only alter the awareness, Priority etc.

CULTIVATION THEORY

Cultivation theory (aka cultivation hypothesis, cultivation analysis) was an a theory composed originally by G. Gerbner and later expanded upon by Gerbner & Gross (1976 – Living with television: The violence profile. Journal of Communication, 26, 76.), they began research in the mid-1960s endeavoring to study  media effects, specifically whether watching television influences the audiences idea and perception of everyday life, and if so, how. Cultivation theory states that high frequency viewers of television are more susceptible to media messages and the belief that they are real and valid. Heavy viewers are exposed to more violence and therefore are affected by the Mean World Syndrome, the belief that the world is a far worse and dangerous place then it actually is.

Cultivation research is one that studies media effects (in my opinion one of the most controversial areas of media research). Cultivation theorists posit that television viewing can have long-term effects that gradually affect the audience. Their primary focus falls on the effects of viewing in the attitudes of the viewer as opposed to created behavior.

Heavy viewers of TV are thought to be ‘cultivating’ attitudes that seem to believe that the world created by television is an accurate depiction of the real world. The theory suggests that prolonged watching of television can tend to induce a certain paradigm about violence in the world. Theorists break down the effects of cultivation into two distinct levels: first order – is a general beliefs about the our world, and second order – which are specific attitudes, such as a hatred or reverence for law and order, pedophiles, etc.

The theory suggests that this cultivation of attitudes is based on attitudes already present in our society and that the media take those attitudes which are already present and re-present them bundled in a different packaging to their audiences. One of the main tenets of the theory is that television and media cultivate the status quo, they do not challenge it. Many times the viewer is unaware the extent to which they absorb media, many times viewing themselves as moderate viewers when, in fact, they are heavy viewers.

The theory suggests that television and media possess a small but significant influence on the attitudes and beliefs of society about society. Those who absorb more media are those we are more influenced.

Theorists of this persuasion are best known for their study of television violence, a hotly debated, and beaten to death topic. However, there are many studies that expand beyond the study of violence to cover gender, demographics, cultural representations, and political attitudes among many others.

The delta between those considered to be light viewers and heavy viewers is called thecultivation differential. This describes the extent to which an attitude on a particular topic is shaped by exposure to television.