Public Relations

Communication and public relations are linked to each other and play an important role in a wide variety of ways throughout our lives. Communication, if used properly, can be used to inform, educate, reassure, evoke sympathy of situations as and when they occur.

Thus we can say that:

Public relations involves:

i) a two way communication process between an organisation and its public

ii) communication with a view to changing the mindsets of the public in a certain direction. We can therefore define public relations as a form of communication used to persuade or influence people using ethical means.

"Public"

A group of similar individuals; an assortment of persons having the same interests,

Problems, circumstances, goals; it is from such persons that opinion emanates. Public is a varied creature; it comes in many forms and sizes. Public has a multitude of wants and desires; it has its likes and dislikes, some times, strong likes

and strong dislikes. Employers make for a public and employees another public; the government is a public and citizens constitute another public, and so on, each of these groups is a public of the sort, tries to attract a different audience with its own tools and techniques.

"Relations"

Human wants to create the need to establish relations with one another. The representative wants of the individuals will profoundly affect their relationship. To

understand any relationship, therefore, one must understand the wants of those involved.

'Relationships are of all possible types. We have relationship by ran-superior to inferior, inferior to superior, and equal to equal. We have relationship by sentiment-benevolent, Friendly, suspicious, jealous, hostile. A relationship may be active, or it may be passive it may be good or it may be bad, or it may be neutral. At any rate, the relationship is there to be accepted, ignored or altered, as desired.

DEFINITIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

“Public Relations is the deliberate, planned and sustained effort to establish and maintain mutual understanding between on organization and its publics.”
- Institute of Public Relations, USA

“Public relations is the attempt by information persuasion and adjustment to engineer public support for an activity, cause, movement or institution.”
- Edward L. Bernays

“Public Relations is a combination of philosophy, sociology, economics, language, psychology, journalism, communication and other knowledges into a system of human understanding."

- Herbert M. Baus

“Merely human decency which flows from a good heart.”

- Charles Plackard

“Good performance, publicity appreciated because adequately communicated.”

- Fortune (Magazine)

“Public Relations is Dale Carnegie - winning friends and influencing people – writ large.”

- Robert Heibroner

“Everything involved in achieving a favourable opinion."

- George F. Meredith

Former President of the American Pubic Relation Association

“The Management function which gives the same organized and careful attention to the asset of goodwill as is given to any other major asset of business.”

- John W. Hill

"Public Relations is distinctive management function which helps establish and maintain mutual lines of communication, understanding, acceptance and cooperation between an organization and its publics; involves the management of problems or issues; helps management to keep informed on and responsive to public opinion; defines and emphasizes the responsibility of management to serve the public interest; helps management keep abreast of and effectively utilize change, serving as an early warning system to help anticipate trends; and uses research and sound and ethical communication as its principal tools."

- Rex F. Harlow

ORIGIN OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Thomas Jefferson (1807) used the phrase "Public relations" in the place of "State of thought" while writing his seventh address to the US Congress. In India, Great Indian Peninsular Railway Company Limited (GIP Railways) carried on publicity in Public Relations campaign in England for promote tourism to India through mass media and pamphlets. During the time of First World War a central publicity board was set up at Bombay (now Mumbai) for disseminating war news to the public and press. After Second World War the Public Relations activity gained importance both privates as well as Government started Public Relations campaigns.

 NEED FOR PUBLIC RELATIONS

Investing on Public relations will help the organisation to achieve its objective

effectively and smoothly. Public Relations is not creating good image for a bad team. Since false image cannot be sustained for a long time. Though the organization product or services are good it need an effective Public Relations campaign for attracting, motivating the public to the product or service or towards the purpose of the programme. It is not only encourage the involvement from the public and also resulting in better image. An effective Public Relations can create and build up the image of an individual or an organisation or a nation. At the time of adverse publicity or when the organisation is under crisis an effective Public Relations can remove the "misunderstanding" and can create mutual understanding between the organisation and the public.

FUNCTIONS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

Public Relations is establishing the relationship among the two groups

(organisation and public).

Art or Science of developing reciprocal understanding and goodwill.

It analyses the public perception & attitude, identifies the organisation policy with

public interest and then executes the programmes for communication with the public.

To persuade publics.

Image Buliding.

Crisis Management

Media Relations

1.5. ELEMENTS OF PUBLIC RELATIONS

•A planned effort or management function.

•The relationship between an organisation and its publics

•Evaluation of public attitudes and opinions.

•An organisation's policies, procedures and actions as they relate to said organisation's publics.

•Steps taken to ensure that said policies, procedures and actions are in the public

interest and socially responsible.

•Execution of an action and or communication programme.

•Development of rapport, goodwill, understanding and acceptance as the chief endresult sought by public relations activities.

Propaganda:

Propaganda is the manipulation of symbols to transmit accepted attitudes and skills. It describes political application of publicity and advertising, also on a large scale, to the end of selling an idea cause or candidate or all three.

Campaigns:

These consist of concerted, single-purpose publicity programme, usually on a more or less elaborate scale, employing coordinated publicity through a variety of media, aimed, at a number of targets, but focussed on specific objectives. A campaign objective may be the election of a candidate, the promotion of political cause or issue, the reaching of a sales goal, or the raising of a quota of funds.

Lobbying:

It entails the exertion of influence, smooth and measured pressure on other, exercise of persuasion cum-pressure. In essence, it means a group putting its points of view forward in an attempt to win the other groups support.

PUBLIC RELATIONS PROCESS

The definition of Public Relations as relations with the general public through publicity, those functions of a corporation, organisation, branch of military service, etc., concerned with informing the public of its activities, policies, etc., attempting to create favourable public opinions. Public Relations is the planned effort to influence opinion through good character

and responsible performance, based upon mutually satisfactory two-way communications.

1) Research-listening: This involves probing the opinions, attitudes and reactions of those concerned with the acts and policies of an organisation, then evaluating the inflow. This task also requires determining facts regarding the organisation: "what's our problem?"

2) Planning-decision making: This involves bringing these attitudes, opinions, ideas and reactions to bear on the policies and programmes of the organisation. It will enable the organisation to chart a course in the interests of all concerned: "Here's what we can do."

3) Communication-action: This involves explaining and dramatizing the chosen course to all those who may be affected and whose support is essential: "Here's what we did and why."

4) Evaluation: This involves evaluating the results of the programme and the effectiveness of techniques used: "How did we do?" The first phase of Public Relations process is identifying and listing out the information or message to the communicator.

The second phase of Public Relations is process to ascertain the existing image or awareness level about the issue in the target group or common public.

The third phase of Public Relations is developing of communication objectives and priorities.

The fourth phase of Public Relations is deals with developing the message and choosing the media to transit.

The fifth phase of Public Relations is the implementation of the message and media, coordination or the dissemination of message.

The sixth phase of Public Relations is communication process to check whether message reached properly and the expected action or behaviour or knowledge on image factors.

The seventh phase of Public Relations, in case the message did not reach properly identified the reason for the ineffectiveness and rectification of the same and disseminate the revised message.

TYPES OF PUBLICS

The term PR is relations with the publics, would be more into the point. Practitioners communicate with many different publics not just the general public each having its own special needs requiring different types of communication.

Internally managers deal directly with various levels of subordinates, as well as with cross-relationship that arises when subordinates interact with one another. Externally managers deal with system that includes government regulatory agencies, labour unions, sub-contractors, consumer groups, and many other independent organizations. Publics can be classified into several categories:

General and Specific Publics:

General publics are heterogeneous ad they are not directly in link with the organizations. They donot have similar groups or interest. While specific people are the opposite of that of general. With specific or similar interest,views,opinions.

Intenal and External Publics:

Internal publics are inside the organizations: managers, supervisors, clerks, stockholders, board of directors, employees. External publics ar those not directly connected with internal things: press,government, customers, educators, community.

Corporate Communication

There is a widespread belief in the management world that in today’s society the future of any company critically depends on how it is viewed by key stakeholders, such as shareholders and investors, customers and consumers, employees, and members of the community in which the company operates. Corporate communication is a management function or department, like marketing, finance, or operations, dedicated to the dissemination of information to key constituencies, the execution of corporate strategy and the development of messages for a variety of purposes for inside and outside the organization. In today’s global corporation, this function serves as the conscience of the corporation and is responsible for the organization’s reputation.  Previously called “public relations” or “public affairs,” corporate communication has taken on new importance in the 21st century.

Corporate communications is the process of facilitating information and knowledge exchanges with internal and key external groups and individuals that have a direct relationship with an enterprise. It is concerned with internal communications management from the standpoint of sharing knowledge and decisions from the enterprise with employees, suppliers, investors and partners.

Corporate communications may include:

Analyst relations
Internal communications
Investor relations;
Corporate governance (communications aspects of corporate governance);
Issue management;
Change management (communications aspects of growth management, mergers and acquisitions etc.);
Corporate social responsibility;
Litigation (communications on/around litigation)
Crisis communications etc.

SCOPE AND DEFINITONS

Perhaps the best way to define corporate communication is to look at the way in which the function has developed in companies. Until the 1970s, practitioners had used the term ‘public relations’ to describe

communication with stakeholders. This ‘public relations’ function, which was tactical in most companies, largely consisted of communication with the press. When other stakeholders, internal and external to the company, started to demand more information from the company, practitioners subsequently started to look at communication as being more than just ‘public relations’. This is when the roots of the new corporate communication function started to take hold. This new function came to incorporate a whole range of specialized disciplines, including corporate design, corporate advertising, internal communication to employees, issues and crisis management, media relations, investor relations, change communication and public affairs.An important characteristic of the new function is that it focuses on the organization as a whole and on the important task of how an organization presents itself to all its key stakeholders, both internal and external.

This broad focus is also reflected in the word ‘corporate’ in corporate communication. The word of course refers to the business setting in which corporate communication  emerged as a separate function (alongside other functions such as human resources and finance). There is also an important second sense with which the word is being used. ‘Corporate’ originally stems from the Latin words for ‘body’ (corpus) and for ‘forming into a body’ (corporare), which emphasize a unified way of looking at ‘internal’ and ‘external’ communication disciplines. That is, instead of looking at specialized disciplines or stakeholder groups separately, the corporate communication function starts from the perspective of the ‘bodily’ organization as a whole when communicating with internal and external stakeholders. Corporate communication, in other words, can be characterized as a management function that is responsible for overseeing and coordinating the work done by communication practitioners in different specialist disciplines, such as media relations, public affairs and internal communication.

Van Riel defines corporate communication as ‘an instrument of management by means of which all consciously used forms of internal and external communication are harmonized as effectively and efficiently as possible’, with the overall objective of creating ‘a favourable basis for relationships with groups upon which the company is dependent’.

Overall, if a definition of corporate communication is required, these characteristics can provide

a basis for one:

 Corporate communication is a management function that offers a framework for the effective coordination of all internal and external communication with the overall purpose of establishing and maintaining favourable reputations with stakeholder groups upon which the organization is dependent.

One consequence of these characteristics of corporate communication is that it is likely to be complex in nature. This is especially so in organizations with a wide geographical range, such as multinational corporations, or with a wide range of products or services, where the coordination of communication is often a balancing act between corporate headquarters and the various divisions and business units

involved. However, there are other significant challenges in developing effective corporate communication strategies and programmes. Corporate communication demands an integrated approach to managing communication. Unlike a specialist frame of reference, corporate communication transcends the specialties of individual communication practitioners (e.g., branding, media relations, investor relations, public affairs, internal communication, etc.) and crosses these specialist boundaries to harness the strategic interests of the organization at large. Richard Edelman, CEO of Edelman, the world’s largest independent PR agency, highlights the strategic role of corporate communication as follows: ‘we used to be the tail on the dog, but now communication is the organizing principle behind many business decisions’. The general idea is that the sustainability and success of a company depends on how it is

viewed by key stakeholders, and communication is a critical part of building, maintaining and protecting such reputations.

Internal Corporate Communication

Internal corporate communication means the communication within a particular company. Some of the commonly used tools for internal communication can include business meetings, conferences, interviews, presentations or print media like brochures, newsletters, memos, or business letters. Corporate communication is used to make announcements, take decisions and in general share information, views and opinions within organization. Corporate communication is a great way to create a conducive work atmosphere, thus increasing the productivity of the organization. Factors like work hierarchy come into picture during internal corporate communication. Depending on the direction of communication, internal corporate communication can be further classified as horizontal or vertical communication - horizontal referring to communication within peers and vertical referring to communication within different hierarchies in the organization.

External Corporate Communication

External corporate communication process includes communication of the corporate organization with its current/potential investors, customers and other corporate entities. The external corporate communication process includes elements like advertising, marketing and public relations. The external communication is responsible for the way the company portrays itself to the entire corporate world. Thus, external corporate communication is instrumental in creating the brand image or brand identity. The advertisement campaigns and promotional events can be included in external corporate communication as well. Television ads, newspaper ads, radio jingles, promotional events, or even business proposals, affiliation or partnership proposals are included in external corporate communication.

IPRA CODE OF PROFESSIONAL CONDUCT AND ETHICS

The following Code of Conduct was adopted by the International Public Relations Association at its general assembly in Venice, May 1961 and is binding on all members of the association.

IPRA code of professional conduct

A. Personal and Professional Integrity

1. It is understood that, by personal integrity is meant the maintenance of both high moral standards and a sound reputation. By professional integrity is meant observance of the constitution, rules, and particularly, the Code as adopted by IPRA.

B. Conduct towards Clients and Employers.

1. A member has a general duty of fair dealing towards his clients or employers, past and present.

2. A member shall not represent conflicting or competing interests without the express consent of those concerned.

3. A member shall safeguard the confidence of both present and former clients or employers.

4. A member shall not employ methods tending to be derogatory of another member’s client or employer.

5. In performing services for a client or employer, a member shall not accept fees, commissions or any other valuable consideration in connection with those services from anyone other than his client or employer without the express consent of his client or employer, given after a full disclosure of the facts.

6. A member shall not propose to a prospective client or employer that his fee or other compensation be contingent on the achievement of certain results; nor shall he enter into any agreement to the same effect.

C. Conduct towards the Public and the Media.

1. A member shall conduct his professional activities in accordance with the public interest, and with full respect for the dignity of the individual.

2. A member shall not engage in any practice which tends to corrupt the integrity of channels of public communication.

3. A member shall not intentionally disseminate false or misleading information.

4. A member shall, at all times, seek to give a balanced and faithful representation of the organisation to serve some announced cause, but actually to serve an undisclosed special or private interest of a member or his client or his employer, nor shall he make use of it or any such existing organisation.

D. Conduct towards colleagues.

1. A member shall not intentionally injure the professional reputation or practice of another member. However, if a member has evidence that another member has been guilty of unethical, illegal or unfair practices in violation of this Code, he shall present the information to the Council of IPRA.

2. A member shall not seek to supplant another member with his employer or client.

3. A member shall cooperate with fellow members in upholding and enforcing this Code.

CODE OF ATHENS

IPRA members are also required to abide by the code of ethics, known as the Code of Athens as the IPRA General Assembly adopted it in Athens in May 1965. It was modified slightly in Tehran in April 1968. (The Code of Athens was also adopted by CERP in 1965).

This Code obliges every IPRA member to observe a strict moral code.

Each member shall endeavour:

1.     To contribute to the achievement of the moral and cultural conditions enabling human beings to reach their full stature and enjoy the indefeasible rights to which they are entitled under the ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’.

2.     To establish communications patterns and channels which, foster the free flow of essential information, which make each member in the society in which he lives feel that he is being kept informed, and also gives him an awareness of his own personal involvement and responsibility, and of his solidarity with other members.

3.     To bear in mind that because of the relationship between his profession and the public, his conduct- even in private- will have an impact on the way in which the profession as a whole is appraised.

4.     To respect, in the course of his professional duties, the moral principles and the rule of the ‘Universal Declaration of Human Rights’

5.     To pay due regards to, and uphold, human dignity, and to recognise the right of each individual to judge for himself.

6.     To encourage the moral, psychological and intellectual conditions for dialogue in its true sense, and to recognise the right of these parties involved to state their case and express their views.

Shall undertake:

7.     To conduct himself always and in all circumstances in such a manner as to deserve and secure the confidence of those with whom he comes into contact.

8.     To act, in all circumstances, in such a manner as to take account of the respective interests of the parties involved: both the interests of the organisation which he serves and the interests of the publics concerned.

9. To carry out his duties with integrity, avoiding language likely to lead to ambiguity or misunderstanding and to maintain loyalty to his clients or employers, whether past or present.

Shall refrain from

10. Subordinating the truth to other requirements.

11. Circulating information which is not based on established and ascertainable facts.

12. Taking part in any venture or undertaking which is unethical or dishonest or capable of impairing human dignity and integrity.

13. Using any ‘manipulative’ methods or techniques designed to create subconscious motivations which the individual cannot control of his own free will and so cannot be held accountable for the action taken on them.

Most national public relations associations have adopted codes of professional conduct which must be observed by their members. The Code of Professional Conduct of the Institute of Public Relations, which was adopted on 31 December 1963, is typical of these codes

Throughout its existence IPRA has always sought to provide intellectual leadership for the public relations profession.

A key part of this has been the development of a number of Codes and Charters seeking to provide an ethical framework for the activities of the profession. Upon joining IPRA all members undertake to uphold these Codes and in doing so benefit from the ethical climate that they create.

In 2011 these Codes were consolidated into a single document updated to reflect the age in which we now live

The “IPRA Code of Conduct”

Adopted in 2011 the IPRA Code of Conduct is an affirmation of professional and ethical conduct by members of the International Public Relations Association and recommended to public relations practitioners worldwide.

The Code consolidates the 1961 Code of Venice, the 1965 Code of Athens and the 2007 Code of Brussels.

(a) RECALLING the Charter of the United Nations which determines “to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, and in the dignity and worth of the human person”;

(b) RECALLING the 1948 “Universal Declaration of Human Rights" and especially recalling Article 19;

(c) RECALLING that public relations, by fostering the free flow of information, contributes to the interests of all stakeholders;

(d) RECALLING that the conduct of public relations and public affairs provides essential democratic representation to public authorities;

(e) RECALLING that public relations practitioners through their wide-reaching communication skills possess a means of influence that should be restrained by the observance of a code of professional and ethical conduct;

(f) RECALLING that channels of communication such as the Internet and other digital media, are channels where erroneous or misleading information may be widely disseminated and remain unchallenged, and therefore demand special attention from public relations practitioners to maintain trust and credibility;

(g) RECALLING that the Internet and other digital media demand special care with respect to the personal privacy of individuals, clients, employers and colleagues;

In the conduct of public relations practitioners shall:

1. Observance

Observe the principles of the UN Charter and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights;

2. Integrity

Act with honesty and integrity at all times so as to secure and retain the confidence of those with whom the practitioner comes into contact;

3. Dialogue

Seek to establish the moral, cultural and intellectual conditions for dialogue, and recognise the rights of all parties involved to state their case and express their views;

4. Transparency

Be open and transparent in declaring their name, organisation and the interest they represent;

5. Conflict.

Avoid any professional conflicts of interest and to disclose such conflicts to affected parties when they occur;

6. Confidentiality

Honour confidential information provided to them;

7. Accuracy

Take all reasonable steps to ensure the truth and accuracy of all information provided;

8. Falsehood

Make every effort to not intentionally disseminate false or misleading information, exercise proper care to avoid doing so unintentionally and correct any such act promptly;

9. Deception

Not obtain information by deceptive or dishonest means;

10. Disclosure

Not create or use any organisation to serve an announced cause but which actually serves an undisclosed interest;

11. Profit

Not sell for profit to third parties copies of documents obtained from public authorities;

12. Remuneration

Whilst providing professional services, not accept any form of payment in connection with those services from anyone other than the principal;

13. Inducement

Neither directly nor indirectly offer nor give any financial or other inducement to public representatives or the media, or other stakeholders;

14. Influence

Neither propose nor undertake any action which would constitute an improper influence on public representatives, the media, or other stakeholders;

15. Competitors

Not intentionally injure the professional reputation of another practitioner;

16. Poaching

Not seek to secure another practitioner’s client by deceptive means;

17. Employment

When employing personnel from public authorities or competitors take care to follow the rules and confidentiality requirements of those organisations;

18. Colleagues

Observe this Code with respect to fellow IPRA members and public relations practitioners worldwide.

IPRA members shall, in upholding this Code, agree to abide by and help enforce the disciplinary procedures of the International Public Relations Association in regard to any breach of this Code.

Adopted by the IPRA Board 5 November 2010

PRESS CONFERENCE

What is a press conference?

A press conference is a tool designed to generate news – in particular, hard news that can advance the cause of your organization. Hard news is defined as a story in the print or electronic media which is timely, significant, prominent, and relevant. A press conference is a voluntary presentation of information to the media. In a press conference, you decide what information is presented, how it is presented, and who presents it. It is an opportunity to get your story on TV, radio or in the paper. To hold a press conference you contact the media, pick a time and place, make a presentation and respond to reporters’ questions.

Define your goals

Before you plan a press conference you should be very clear about your goals. Being clear about your goals will help you do a better job of planning the press conference. Some good reasons for holding a press conference might include:

• to get publicity about your efforts and problems;

• to get widespread media coverage;

• to send a message to a decision maker about what you want;

• to get more people involved in your organization;

• to develop the skills of your members;

• to show the strength of your group. Whatever your organizational goals are, remember

that you have to have something newsworthy to announce, reveal, or talk about at your press conference.

When should you hold a press conference?

You and your organization could hold a press conference whenever there is an event your organization wants to inform the community about. However, in some cases, you will want to hold a press conference for fast breaking news. Remember, you don't want to hold a press conference too often. It is a special event, and should be treated as such. But here are some cases when a press conference might be a good idea:

·         When the event includes a prominent individual to whom the media should have access.

·         When you have significant announcements to make, such as a campaign start-up or a lobbying victory.

·         When there is an emergency or crisis centered around your group or the issues it deals with.

·         When a number of groups are participating in an action, and the show of support will emphasize that this action is news.

·         When you want to react to a related event; for example, when a national report relevant to your issue is released.

How do you hold a press conference?

Before the press conference:

you may have to schedule a press conference on short notice.  If you do have lead time, however, you and your group will want to start planning at least a week or two before the press conference is to take place. The following steps should help you plan for your press conference:

1. Define the message.

Define the key message(s) that you and your group are trying to get out to the community. Your goal may be to introduce or shed more light on your issue, to announce a new program or event, to react to a news story or to a criticism of or attack on your effort, or to draw attention to an honor or award your effort has earned.  Whatever the message, it should be summarized in clear 3-5 key points to the press.  If a date, a time, an address or phone number, or other specific information is part of the message – if the purpose of the press conference is to announce an upcoming event, for example – make sure to give it more than once, and to have it displayed prominently in your press kit . Double- or triple-check any such information to make sure you have it right, both in speech and in print.

2. Schedule the date and time.

You and your group will need to determine a date and time for the press conference, and make sure it doesn't conflict with other press events or media deadlines. One way to find this out is to check with the local media and the wire services, who will know if your press conference conflicts with another. Here are some other tips for scheduling your press conference:

·         Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays are the best days for press conferences, as they are considered slower news days. Try to have your press conference on one of these days if at all possible.

·         The best time to schedule your press conference is between 10:00 a.m. and 11:00 a.m, to ensure maximum coverage by the media. If you schedule it later, you risk missing the afternoon paper or evening news.

·         Remember, you are competing with all the other news of the day; so don't be too worried if everyone doesn't show up.

3. Pick the site.

Make sure you pick a location for the press conference that has adequate parking and is not too far away for reporters to travel. Also, pick a site that provides visual interest and relationship to each topic--such as the state capitol building, city courthouse, or a local clinic or other site where the activities you’re talking about are actually going on. Other considerations include picking a location relatively free from high levels of background noise (e.g., traffic, telephones, aircraft), and one which has adequate electrical outlets and extension cords for lighting, etc.

4. Select and train your participants.

At this stage of your planning process, you probably won't want to have just anyone from your group participate in the press conference. You will want your participants to be knowledgeable and articulate about the issue. They should be able to handle press questioning and scrutiny as well. People with high credibility, such as local politicians, the director of a local health promotion organization, or a physician may make effective spokespeople. Firsthand testimony from people from the community affected by the issue can be extremely powerful and convincing.

Here are a few tips for participants:

·         Be clear and concise – avoid using jargon, rhetoric, or inflammatory language, and stifle "ums" and "ahs." You want to draw attention to the issue, not distract the audience with your words.

·         Assume the audience is intelligent – avoid sounding patronizing.

·         Don't fiddle with or clutch anything -- it's distracting and makes you appear nervous.

·         Appearance counts – participants should be dressed neatly and appropriately for the occasion.

·         Always tell the truth. If you don't know the answer to a question, say so. Don’t exaggerate or give figures that aren’t backed up by evidence, and don’t state opinions as fact, or make charges that can’t be proven.

In addition to the press conference participants, you will need to find a moderator who is experienced with the press and the issue. He or she will be in charge of convening the press conference by introducing the issue and participants. The moderator also answers questions or directs them to the appropriate participants.

If you and your group are new at this, you may want to attend at least one other press conference to get a feeling for what they are like. Even if you are very experienced in this area, it may be a good idea to conduct a dress rehearsal. Speakers should have scripts to memorize the 3-5 key points, and to make sure to speak no longer than 3-5 minutes each. A dress rehearsal is very helpful in training new participants, and a good time to try to anticipate tough or hostile questions. Have someone from your group play devil's advocate and see how participants respond.

For example, a suitable response to a tough or misguided question might be, "That's a good question, but it is not within the scope of this press conference. Our focus today is on...”  If the question is legitimate but you don't know the answer to it, it's okay to call on someone else from your group who might know, or check out the answer and get back to that reporter later.

5. Contact the media.

The first step in contacting the media is to create a comprehensive mailing list of assignment editors at television stations, news directors at radio stations, and at major newspapers, and editors at weekly newspapers. You may even want to include the wire services (AP, UPI). Others you'll want to be sure to include on your list are reporters you have worked with before, contacts in the media you may have, and reporters who may have covered the issue in recent months.

If your organization has had occasion to work with the media before, you should have personal contacts with a number of media people.  If you haven’t made those contacts, this is a good time to start.  The media aren’t things – they’re made up of human beings doing their jobs.  If you can make human contact with those folks, and especially if you can make their jobs easier, they’ll return the favor. 

6. Follow up with the media.

After you and your group have mailed the press advisories to the media, you will want to follow up your press advisory with phone contact to the major media outlets. Give your press advisory three days to arrive, then begin your telephone follow-ups with the people you sent your press advisory to (if they say they never got one, offer to bring or FAX one to them). Also, follow up a second time the morning of the press conference.

7. Develop a press kit.

A press kit is a folder of information to give reporters background information about your issue or program. Press kits are very useful, if your group can afford it. If a press kit is beyond your budget, a press advisory will do. Your press kit should contain the following:

·         A list of press conference participants.

·         A press release, which should state your group's position on the issue, highlights of the press conference, and a few quotes from participants (for more, see Preparing Press Releases).

·         Background information about the issue (i.e., statistics, historical background, case histories, or reprints of news stories).

·         A few black & white glossy photographs (action photos are most interesting).

·         Short (less than a page) biographies of participants.

·         Related news stories from prestigious national publications

Putting the kit together: The press release goes in the right side of the folder, and the other information goes in the left side of the folder.

8. Prepare the room

There are a number of things you can do to prepare the room you're holding the press conference in. Here are some tips:

·         Check the location of electrical outlets for microphones and lights.

·         Set up the room with a table long enough to seat all your spokespeople, with name cards.

·         Provide enough seating in the room for reporters, and enough room for their supporting equipment (e.g., cameras, microphone).

·         Display visuals as a backdrop to your speaker's table: charts, posters, etc.

·         Have a sign-in pad for attendance.

·         Provide a podium for the moderator, perhaps with your organization's logo on it.

·         Have coffee, tea,water, and any other refreshments set up.

At the Press Conference:

When the big day finally arrives, there are a number of things you and your group can do to help your press conference run as smoothly as possible. We will go through these, step by step:

   1. Welcome members of the press as they arrive.

   2. Have members of the press sign in, with their affiliation, and give each of them a press kit.

   3. Seat the press conference participants behind the table facing the seated reporters.

   4. Check the sign in pad to see which media outlets are represented. You may also want to make personal contact with major media representatives before or after the press conference.

   5. Start approximately on time -- no later than 5 minutes after the scheduled time.

   6. Tape record the event, for your own records, and for possible media use.

   7. Have the moderator welcome the press, and introduce the issue and participants.

   8. Each participant should present for no more than 3-5 minutes, making his/her 3-5 key points.

   9. After all the presentations, the moderator should entertain any questions from the press, and direct questions to the appropriate participants.

  10. After about 45 minutes, bring the formal conference to an end. Thank the participants for presenting, and the media for attending. In many cases, you may want to encourage the media to stay for further informal conversation with the participants.

After the Press Conference

To the extent that you can, make personal contact with representatives at least of the major media outlets represented.  In a small town, this could mean one or two people; in a big city, there might be 20 or more.  If you can have a short, pleasant conversation with these folks and make a good impression, they’ll remember you when they need information or a story about your issue, and they’ll respond when you contact them.

By looking through your attendance register, you should be able to determine which major media were not represented. Not everyone may arrive, as your conference may be preempted by some late breaking news story elsewhere. You may want to hand deliver a press release and press packet to these people, send a tape feed, or, try to schedule an interview with a reporter and one of the press conference participants.

You might also review the press conference with others from your organization that attended.  What went well?  What could you have done better?  And how will you improve the next press conference you hold?

ANNUAL REPORT

It is rare that an organization whether in product or service line does not need publicity material to promote its activities. It can be in the form of printed literature or mailed. All have the same objective to inform, to present the ideas and views of the product and service. Annual reports have recognized as important PR tool for corporate communication. With more and more organizations going public, annual reports can serve as prestige publication to be sent to shareholders and attract prospective investors. Although PR dept of the company does not have a direct responsibility for preparing balance sheets, preparation of accounts, it does advise the management on the overall approach of the report, the theme of the chairman statement, and on the format and presentation of the report. 

An annual report is a comprehensive report on a company's activities throughout the preceding year. Annual reports are intended to give shareholders and other interested people information about the company's activities and financial performance. Most jurisdictions require companies to prepare and disclose annual reports, and many require the annual report to be filed at the company's registry. Companies listed on a stock exchange are also required to report at more frequent intervals (depending upon the rules of the stock exchange involved).

Typically annual reports will include:

• Chairman's report (Note: whether the person is a woman or a man, the convention in business is to use the title of "chairman.")
• CEO's report
• Auditor's report on corporate governance
• Mission statement
• Corporate governance statement of compliance
• Statement of directors' responsibilities
• Invitation to the company's AGM

As well as financial statements including:

• Auditor's report on the financial statements
• Balance sheet
• Statement of retained earnings
• Income statement
• Cash flow statement
• Notes to the financial statements
• Accounting policies

Other information deemed relevant to stakeholders may be included, such as a report on operations for manufacturing firms or corporate social responsibility reports for companies with environmentally or socially sensitive operations. In the case of larger companies, it is usually a sleek, colorful, high gloss publication.

Institutional advertising

It tries to develop goodwill for a company rather than to sell a specific product. Its objective is to improve the advertiser's image, reputation, and relations with the various groups the company deals with. This includes not only end-users and distributors, but also suppliers, shareholders, employees, and the general public. Institutional advertising focuses on the name and prestige of a company. Institutional advertising is sometimes used by large companies with several divisions to link the divisions in customers' minds. It is also used to link a company’s other products to the reputation of a market-leading product.

Institutional ads, also known as "space ads," strive to build (or refresh) the prospect's awareness and favorable view of the company or its product or service. For example, most billboards are institutional ads.

Institutional advertising is marketing designed to promote a company rather than a specific good or service. It can be designed to make the public more aware of a company or to improve the reputation and image of an existing company. Depending on the company, this can be a form of brand advertising.

Many forms of advertising are about promoting products. This can involve promoting a new product so that the public is aware of its existence, or trying to persuade the public to buy more of an existing product. Institutional advertising instead promotes the company itself. One example would be a grocery chain running advertisements which stressed the general quality or low prices of its food, rather than detailing specific offers it was running.

Some forms of institutional advertising are so geared towards promoting a positive image that they effectively discourage sales of a product to some extent. For example, alcohol firms may run commercials warning against excessive drinking or driving while under the influence. Such commercials are usually designed to improve the image of the company, making it seem more trustworthy or responsible.

In some cases, institutional advertising is the same thing as brand awareness advertising. This is where the advertising promotes a particular brand rather than the product itself. For example, a banking group might run commercials promoting one of its banks as being dynamic and exciting, while promoting a sister bank as being particularly helpful to customers. In both cases this is different than promoting a specific service, for example by advertising a low rate on loans for new customers.

It is also possible for institutional advertising to promote an industry rather than a particular company. This will usually be carried out by an industry association. It happens most often in industries where many of the companies are small firms without the budgets to carry out major advertising, particularly in national media. To give a hypothetical example, most wills prepared by lawyers are done so by small law firms with only a few offices. A trade association for inheritance lawyers could carry out institutional advertising by putting together a television commercial which promotes the importance of getting a will, then lists a website which refers viewers to lawyers in their area.

Institutional advertising can cause problems for marketing analysis. Where a commercial is for a specific product, marketers can track how it affects sales and see how effective the advertising was. With institutional advertising, the link between the advertising and the effect on business is much weaker and may take longer to show any effects.

 CAMPAIGNS

Campaigns are a significant part of the public relations profession and should be carried out with meticulous planning and thorough management. Specific step-by-step measures should be taken when planning any PR campaign to ensure it meets the objectives set or, in other words, achieves what needs to be achieved. Thorough planning processes in PR campaigns demonstrate that whatever results occur are deliberate or, indeed, have be taken into consideration. Here I’ll list the 12 stages of planning a successful PR campaign.

RESEARCH

No matter what kind of PR activity you’re involved in, research will be at the core of it. Depending on what you’re doing, different research methods can be used at various times. For example, if you’re working on a campaign to influence teachers that a school drug testing program will help eradicate drug abuse among pupils, you might want to find out their current opinion by carrying out a nationwide questionnaire among teachers. Or maybe you’re embarking on an internal communications audit and want to speak more in depth with employees. Initiating a focus group might be a good means to do this. Research methods are categorized into two groups:

Primary

This is finding out the information you want first hand: Questionnaires, one-to-one interviews, telephone interviews, focus groups, blogs etc.

Secondary

Often called desk research and involves gathering information from already published sources: Books, journals, papers, libraries, Internet etc.

SITUATION ANALYSIS

The research you’ve carried out should clearly define the current situation with regard to the campaign. Depending on what’s involved, this might include an organization’s current situation in the market, how it’s perceived by customers or staff or how it’s fairing financially. Going back to the drug testing in schools example, it might include the current situation with regard to public opinion on the issue or how it’s been portrayed in the media. Whatever your campaign involves, you must be absolutely aware of everything both internally and externally. From this you can carry out a situation SWOT analysis to examine Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats of the current situation, and a PEST analysis to examine the external environment Politically, Economically, Socially and Technologically.

OBJECTIVES

Once you’re aware of the problem(s) your organization is facing, you can then define the objectives of the campaign. The objectives are what is hoped to be the end result of the PR activity. Each objective must be SMART.

Specific: Are they clearly defined and comprehensible?

Measurable: Can each objective be measured in the evaluation?

Achievable: Considering other factors (e.g. budget and timescale) are they achievable?

Realistic: Are you being realistic given the resources you have?

Time: When do you want to achieve the set objectives?

Depending on the situation, sometimes the objectives set can initially be before the research has been undertaken.

IDENTIFYING PUBLICS

Who do you want to talk to? The research carried out in the initial stages of the planning process should have identified each public relevant to the campaign. This is crucial to ensure your key messages are communicated efficiently as possible. The research also should have identified each public’s current attitude to the situation allowing you to tailor your key messages appropriately. Using the drug testing in schools example, publics can also be sub-categorized into:

Latent publics: Groups that face a problem but fail to recognize it – pupils

Aware publics: Groups that recognize a problem exists – teachers, media, parents

Active publics: Groups that are doing something about the problem – Drug organizations, the Government.

IDENTIFYING STAKEHOLDERS

Once the publics of this campaign have been categorized, it is then important to identify who the stakeholders are. A stakeholder analysis is not as specific as identifying publics as it looks at everyone that is involved in the campaign as opposed to only those who need to be communicated to. Publics can also be categorized as stakeholders also. A stakeholder analysis may involve:

* Employees

* Identified publics

* Suppliers

* Senior executives

* Investors

* Etc.

KEY MESSAGES

Once you know the issue you’re facing, the current situation of the organization (both internally and externally) and who you want to talk to, you then have to plan what you want to say. Every PR campaign needs to have a set of messages that forms the main thrust of the communication. These messages need to be clear, concise and readily understood. Key messages are important for two reasons. First of all, they are an essential part of the attitude forming process and second, they demonstrate the effectiveness of the communication. Key messages must not cross over or conflict.

STRATEGY

The strategy in a PR campaign is often confused with the tactics. However, the strategy is the foundation on which a tactical program is built. It is the theory that will move you where the current situation is now to where you want it to be. The strategy is usually the overlying mechanism of a campaign from which the tactics are deployed to meet the objectives.

TACTICS

The PR profession has a number of tactics (or tools) in its armory. The challenge is choosing the right tactics to meet the objectives. Again, depending on what type of campaign you’re involved you might use media relations, lobbying, events, interviews, blogger relations, presentations, consultations, newsletters, competitions, podcasts, stunts, websites, conferences, photography, video news releases, etc. etc.

Remember; don’t use a new-fangled tactic because it’s perceived to be cool, cutting edge or the in thing. Only use the tools that will best help you meet your objectives. Although, creativity is always paramount.

TIMESCALE

Now you know the overall strategy and which tactics you’re going to use, you’ve then got to allocate a time to do it. A timescale allows you co-ordinate your tactics appropriately and helps you be aware of certain deadlines. Not only that, if there are certain future events that relate to your campaign, you can tailor a tactic in your timescale to coincide. Take the drug testing in schools example. If you know that 10 July is National Drugs Awareness Week then you might want to mount a media relations campaign throughout that week. Or on the flip side, if there are more predominant happenings in the news agenda you could hold off until things have died down. An example of an annual planner might look like this: This campaign tends to drip in the beginning stages, burst through the middle and then drip toward the end

BUDGET

Allocating the budget is an essential part of a campaign so all costs should be taken into consideration. The primary reason for a budget lets you know what you can or can’t do, but it also allows you to allocate money to the specific areas of the campaign:

·        Operating costs

·        Distribution, administration, travel, production, seminars

·        Human

·        Overheads, expenses, salaries

·        Equipment

·        Telephones, furniture, computers

CRISIS ISSUES AND MANAGEMENT PLACE

Risk is an inevitable part of some PR campaigns, so being thoroughly prepared in case a problem does occur is paramount. For detailed information on devising a crisis communications plan (CCP) see this post I made earlier.

EVALUATION

The evaluation is an ongoing process particularly in a long-term PR campaign so it is critical to constantly review all specific elements. Evaluating a campaign should be done in two ways:

Ongoing

The ongoing review is what will be carried out throughout the campaign. It is not calculated at the end of all the campaign activity, but constantly throughout. If certain elements of the campaign are not working as effectively as thought in the planning stages, it can be re-focused or re-jigged to fit.

End

The end review will take place after all PR activity has finished and where the final results will be compared against the campaign objectives. To do this, the tactics for each objective will be analyzed individually and critically.

The evaluation is vital to discover which parts of the campaign were successful and which were not. Not only that, it helps determine what the current situation is after the PR activity has ended.

The evaluation process is the ‘added value’ of PR and is something that should not be neglected.

Public Relations in Defense Sector

Public relations in defense fulfills the obligation of the defense force’s to keep the people of their country and the people within the forces themselves informed and helps to establish the conditions that leads to confidence of the civilians in the forces and its readiness to conduct operations in peacetime, conflict, and war. The primary functional areas of public relations are command information, public information, and community relations.

Public Relations within the Defense sector/ organizations

Public Relations Officers also assist commanders who are responsible for providing information within their units. The role of Public Relations personnel and others is to assist, advise, plan, train, and conduct public relations operations.

 The following methods are used while deciding how to communicate with all audiences:

(1) Holding quarterly commander calls, open houses, family support group meetings, and other venues that explain subjects of interest and importance to all audiences.

(2) Hosting formal or informal discussions or associating with civilian professional groups.

(3) Writing articles for publications and accepting invitations for public speaking engagements.

(4) Participating in local community affairs.

Mass communications

(1) Print media are usually available to PR officials in many forms in the civilian and Government sectors. It is their job to maximize the opportunities that print media offer to increase confidence in and visibility for the Defense Forces.

(2) Military installations and commands compete with civilian organizations for civilian broadcast coverage on other than breaking news. Internal radio and television assets can ease the effort required to conduct PA sessions in person.

The Office of the Secretary of Defense (OSD) normally releases general defense information on the overall plans, policies, programs, or operations of the Ministry of Defense. Information that meets any of the criteria below has to be submitted to the concerned authority for clearance prior to release. Doubtful cases also need to be submitted for clearance. Following are the areas that are covered while disseminating information:

(1) Information that originates from or is proposed for release at the Seat of Government.

(2) Information that is or has the potential to become an item of national interest or international interest.

(3) Information and public statements with foreign policy or foreign relations implications.

(4) Information and public statements concerning high-level defense policy.

(5) Information concerning the Government’s policy or policy within the purview of other Government agencies.

(6) Information approved by Ministry of Defense.

(7) Information on subjects of potential controversy among the defense Services.

(8) Initial information on new weapons or weapon systems or significant modifications or improvements to existing weapon systems, equipment, or techniques.

(9) Information on significant military operations, potential operations, operations security (OPSEC), and military exercises.

(10) Information on military applications in space.

(11) Information on weapons of mass destruction (including nuclear weapons) and the components of such weapons including—

(a)  Nuclear weapons effects research.

(b)  Chemical warfare and defensive biological and toxic research.

(c)  High-energy lasers and particle beams technology.

(d)  Nuclear, biological, and chemical (NBC) defense testing and production, policies, programs, and activities.

 (13) Information and materials, including submissions by defense contractors, involving critical military technology.

(14) Information concerning communications security, electronic warfare, signal intelligence, and computer security.

(18) Casualty information on key Government personnel or equivalent foreign government personnel.

(19) Information on activation, inactivation, or reorganization of Active defense brigades or larger units.

(20) Information on counterterriorist activities as defined by defense policy.

Facilitating media visits

Facilitating media visits is an important task of the PRO in defense sector. It helps in maintaining credibility by garnering good coverage and reviews in the media organizations.

1.  News media representatives may visit those areas of an installation normally open to the public when the subject matter is of local interest or deals with news events that happen without prior planning or knowledge and the information is releasable under existing regulations. The news media and the public are restricted from areas where access must be controlled for criminal justice purposes. Media coverage of subjects of potential controversy or national level interest will be coordinated through the ministry for review and approval. Installation commanders or contractors will cooperate in a timely manner with bona fide media representatives who request permission to visit an installation under Army jurisdiction or the facilities of defense contractors to obtain information for public release.

2.  Local procedures have to be developed to handle news media personnel during disaster and civil disturbance conditions.

3.  Public Relations Officers and news media representatives are required to establish basic ground rules that ensure the free flow of information while safeguarding classified materials or operational plans.

Precaution while Disseminating Information

Doing public relations in the defense sector is a herculean task that requires a lot of responsibility and commitment. No safeguarded information should be discussed, shown, or made available to unauthorized individuals. Releasable information must be accurate and must adhere to published policies of the forces.

Community relations programs and activities

A number of programmes are effective in informing the public about the defense forces and in developing and maintaining a viable relationship with the civilian community. Programs that involve direct contact with the civilian community are the most effective unofficial means of improving community relations. Commanders should encourage military and civilian personnel and their family members to participate as private persons in local community activities such as educational, religious, organizational, recreational, and youth projects.

1.       Ongoing liaison with organizations (including those at local, State, and regional events).

2.      Participatory membership in civic, business, and professional organizations.

3.      Using exhibits, bands, color guards, and other ceremonial units in the public domain.

4.      Periodic open houses and an active installation tour program.

5.      Participating in national holiday observances.

6.      Supporting overseas host nation activities (Holiday, and traditional programs).

Open house: An open house is a military program conducted on an installation or other military facility to which the general public is invited. It is designed to present military missions, equipment, facilities, and personnel to a local or regional civilian community to satisfy public interest in the defense establishment and its role in national security affairs. An open house can establish and maintain cordial relationships between military installations and surrounding civilian communities. An open house may be scheduled to coincide with Force’s anniversaries, Service branch birthdays, anniversaries that mark the history of installations or units or community events or in support of a media day.

Role of the Public Relations Department in Defense sector

Public Relations Team is the communications conduit between the defense forces and civilian media networks as well as common people. It is critical to the public perception and image of forces and the PR Team is required to develop, implement and monitor operational and tactical communication strategies and provide timely advice to all levels of command within defense forces. Listed below are some of the duties of the Public Relations Officers:

·         Leading Army public affairs teams in support of Army activities (including exercises and operations);

·         Provide public affairs and issues management advice to Army commanders;

·         Developing and implement strategic, operational and tactical communication strategies;

·         Undertaking effective media liaison, escort and support duties;

·         Prepare media releases;

·         Conduct media awareness training for Army personnel; and

·         Oversee the gathering, management and quality of Army public relations product (including stills and video imagery, and articles for Army publications).

PR In Educational and Research Institutions

Educational Development in India

School Education :

 Today we have about 5.5 lakh primary schools, 1.4 lakh middle schools and more than 50,000 secondary schools and 15,000 higher secondary schools in the country. But that is only one part of the story. Though a majority of children get enrolled in class 1 to begin with, they start dropping out from the next year onwards, accounting for a sizeable percentage of dropouts, at the end of the primary stage.

Secondary and Higher Secondary Education : 

As for enrolment of children in the school sector, it is just over one crore at the secondary stage as compared to the eight crore children at the beginning of the primary stage. When one looks at the higher secondary stage the enrolment further dwindles down to 35lakh children or so in the 15,000 and odd higher secondary schools in the country.

Higher Education

In direct contrast to the school education sector, the number of universities in the country went up by leaps and bounds since Independence. Currently, there are 194 universities including deemed universities and similar institutions and 7,400 colleges. The student enrolment has touched the four million mark.

Adult Education

1. National Adult Education Programme.
2. Education for all.

Important Educational Institutions:

1.) University Grants Commission (UGC)-In the field of higher education, the University Grants Commission is an important body which was set up by an Act of Parliament in 1956. A more important aspect of its work is to set standards and ensure imparting of quality education at the higher education stage.

It encourages universities to start new programmers to keep pace with the changing needs of the society under several schemes.

2.) Indira Gandhi National Open University (IGNOU)

The Indira Gandhi National Open University was established by an Act of the Parliament in 1985 in order to augment opportunities for higher education.

The IGNOU makes an effort to:

1) Take education to the doorsteps of student

2) Provide education to all irrespective of age, region or formal qualifications

3) Offer need-based vocational and professional academic programmes.

4) Promote and develop distance education in India

5) Set and maintain standards in distance education in the country.

3.) Other Open Universities:

Four other university functioning in the country at Hyderabad, Kota , Nalanda and Nasik.

4.) National Council of Educational, Research and Training (NCERT)

    
 NCERT was set up in 1961 under the societies Registration Act (1860).

Function of the NCERT:

1.  Research and development.
2.  In service and pre-service training.
3.  Extension and dissemination work- all these tuned to achieve the main objective of improving the quality of school education.

5.) National Institute of Educational, Planning and Administration (NIEPA)

1. Training of educational planners and administrators
2. Research
3. Consultancy service. Its activities concern all areas of education- both school sector and the higher education sector.

Public Relation Perspective on Education

1.   Campaign Approach.
2.   Public Relations Professionals in Education Field.
3.   Institutionalized Public Relations.

A Public Relations Officer uses all ways of communication to build, maintain and hold a good reputation of school. Reputation arises from what you do, what you say and what others say about you.

- Public relation officer informs and assists board administrators with news media and public relations/community matters as maybe requested.

- Raises and implements communications plans as requested.

- Writes news releases, media advisories, newsletters, speeches and television.

- Serves as staff coordinator for public relations and special events development for the school

- Serves as spokesperson for the school division
and responses to media and public requests for information.

- Conducts and develops periodic training in communications/public relations development.

Following are the roles and responsibilities of a PRO in a school:

- planning Public relations campaigns and strategies for new students and parents:
- monitoring public and media perception of the school
- writing and editing brochures, press releases, speeches, newsletters and websites etc
- arranging events
- developing good working relationships with the media 
- public speaking at presentations, conferences etc about the charter and activities of the school
- representing the school at different events.

            Public relations in developing countries

Towards the end of the twentieth century, the world was less clearly divided into the first world (North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australasia), the second world (communist states including the Soviet Union, China and North Korea) and the third world (underdeveloped or developing countries in Africa, Asia Pacific, the Indian subcontinent).

With the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1990 came the collapse of the Berlin wall, partitioning East and West Germany, the end of Soviet hegemony in the Balkans and the resultant war, and the Soviet Union’s military withdrawal from Afghanistan. There have been many other effects throughout the world based on these after-effects. InRussia, sources of media have increased considerably since the policies of ‘perestroika’ and ‘glasnost’, first developed by President Gorbachev, brought down the Soviet Union and its communist ideology. Nevertheless, PR professionals in Western companies like Coca-Cola spend much of their time communicating with intrusive bureaucratic governments and their employees rather than journalists and consumers.

In China, too, the number of advertising agencies has drastically increased from virtual non-existence in the early 1980s to many tens of

thousands by the mid-1990s. Media structures within countries are affected by the nature of the political system. The independent mass media flourishes under democratic systems but has tended to stagnate and die under communist or theocratic rule. Mass media systems are subject to the nature and structure of regulation, based as they are on political objectives. There are differing degrees of restrictions on media and paid advertising in different countries. The nature of what the press is allowed to report is also subject to national cultures (and authoritarian regimes!).

A good example of the difficulties of adapting PR techniques to different

cultures is probably best exemplified in China. Networking in America, whilst often derided by those most adept at it, is nevertheless a relatively open process. In China, the equivalent, Guanxi, is very different. Whereas networking in the US tends to be public, in China it is more private and secretive. Discussions will take place in closed environments rather than in open ones. Whilst a Chinese person may claim that they have Guanxi (namely, good interpersonal contacts), it is not usually possible to verify this except through trial and error. Whilst US PR mainly uses mass media, Guanxi, by definition, operates as an interpersonal medium. Finally, whilst Guanxi operates through the development of friendly relationships and ties (perhaps what we might call cronyism in the UK), in the US, negotiations are usually more principle-centred. So, we can see a very different culture in operation. Clearly, this style of communication can drastically affect how PR techniques are conducted. Organizing an event would require a very different process in Shanghai as compared to New York or London.

Western companies developing sponsorship programmes in China have tended to target sport, music and arts events because of huge growth in these sectors. Music, particularly, allows young Chinese people freedom to express themselves and so is often linked with fashion, products and lifestyle marketing approaches.

There are three ways of looking at public relations media in developing

Countries. First, there is the dearth of Western-style mass media; secondly, there are the limitations of the existing mass media; and thirdly,

there are the problems, special needs and special techniques of communicating with illiterate people and those, often remotely located, of different ethnic groups, languages, dialects, religions and lifestyles. These

are problems that confront the PRO working in a developing country, or

the PRO of an organization that exports to, or operates in, these countries.

Nevertheless, PR professionals do operate in these countries and lifestyles are changing as fast as these countries’ economies can develop.

Dearth of Western-style mass media

The number and circulation of newspapers, the number of television sets and computers, and number of Internet-connected computers, the number and kind of television viewers, the nature of mobile telephony, and the number of radios and listeners will depend on the following factors:

1. The degree of literacy. This depends on the primary education system on the one hand and adult literacy education on the other.

2. The sophistication of the economy. This will influence the size of the

market, the justification for advertising and the ability for media to be commercially viable. There are several ways of looking at this. A country may depend on a particular crop or mineral, e.g. sugar, cocoa, copper or rubber. If there is a slump in the world market for that product, the country’s economy will suffer. A net exporter may become a net importer so that restrictions will be placed on imports. In some countries, a large number of people may be outside the cash economy (e.g. China) because they are subsistence workers who sell little or no surplus produce.

3. The popularity of television. Community viewing in developing countries has popularized television, but programmes are often shown in the evening, and since it is usually not the custom for women to go out at night, audiences are limited to men. Young people are also likely to be excluded. In the Taliban-controlled Afghanistan of the late 1990s/early 2000s, cinemas were closed down and music was banned.

4. The quality of broadcast material. Programme material is usually of poor quality. Videotape is expensive, studios have limited options.